BIBLICAL ANTHROPOLOGY: Biblical Anthropology

Showing posts with label Biblical Anthropology. Show all posts

Sunday, January 7, 2024

Think like a biblical anthropologist!

Painted burial linen from a grave in Gebelein, Naqada IIa-b (c. 3600 BC).

Museo Egizio, Turin.

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

Readers of this blog are encouraged to become familiar with the data seeking, empirical approach of Biblical Anthropology. Here we dig data out of the 66 canonical books. We read these texts through the lens of anthropology which means we want to know about kinship patterns, social hierarchies, castes, burial practices, sacred symbols, artifacts of biblical populations, and religious beliefs.

Biblical anthropologists consider extra-biblical texts such as the deuterocanonical books and rabbinic interpretations. These texts do contain valuable anthropological and historical information. However, these are not our primary sources.

This discipline is not about promoting private or denominational positions. We do not cherry pick favorite verses and use them to proof-text an argument or theological position. Theology is not the first concern of Biblical Anthropology.

To those steeped in the mindset of "the plain meaning of Scripture" it might sound as if we were promoting strange teachings. There is nothing "plain" about the canonical Scriptures. They are dense, multi-layered, tightly woven, and provocative. They require intense study and close reading with great attention to details. This should be especially true for those who claim Scripture as their first authority (prima scriptura).

We are heirs to the empiricism of the twentieth century and we can legitimately draw on that heritage when investigating the Scriptures as objectively as possible. We may approach the Bible less polemically than past generations. We can understand difficult passages because of the work of learned Bible scholars, textual criticism, biblical archaeology, biblical anthropology, and the study of biblical languages and biblical populations. Today the available “ordinary means” of understanding the Bible are vastly greater and more diverse than in the past.

Archaeology in the Bible lands is "Biblical Archaeology" and the science of anthropology pertaining to the widely dispersed Biblical populations is "Biblical Anthropology". Biblical anthropology should not be confused with theological anthropology.

Anthropologists are interested in material culture. We want to know what people made, what materials were used, and how they made and used tools. We are curious about the objects they used in daily life. How did they bury their dead? Who were the heroes of the target population? Where did the rulers derive their authority? What culture traits made their population distinctive? How did they organize for war? What did they believe about the creation of the world?

A central task of Biblical Anthropology is to uncover antecedents. Culture traits, ceremonies, rituals, and religious beliefs do not spring suddenly into existence. They develop organically over time from traditions received from the ancestors. Biblical Anthropology provides tested methods and tools to draw back the veil of time, to uncover anthropologically significant data that clarifies precedents, etiology, and earlier contexts. There always is something coming before what is described that helps to explain the events recounted. The deeper we dig, the farther back in time we go. A custom such as burial in red ocher, with a duration of at least 100,000 years, is of particular interest to biblical anthropologists.

David Noel Freedman said: “The Hebrew Bible is the one artifact from antiquity that not only maintained its integrity but continues to have a vital, powerful effect thousands of years later.”

Both anthropologists and archaeologists turn to the Bible for data and clues. This often has led to wonderful discoveries! Your help is needed to advance the science of Biblical Anthropology. You don't need a degree. You need to think about the Bible as containing "all things necessary for salvation", guidance for gaining wisdom, and the data necessary for understanding the people of faith from whom we received these texts.

Finally, comments at this blog are always welcome and most are approved. Especially welcome are well-considered, well-informed comments that are backed up by data (not opinions) from the Bible.

Thursday, July 13, 2023

The First Hebrew Lords

Dear Readers,

It has been a long time coming, but my book The First Lords of the Earth: An Anthropological Study is available for purchase on Amazon. Options include Kindle, paperback, or hard cover. All are priced to accommodate book lovers on a tight budget.

This book identifies the social structure and religious beliefs of the early Hebrew ruler-priest caste (6000-4000 years ago), their dispersion out of Africa, their territorial expansion, trade routes, and influence on the populations of the Fertile Crescent and Ancient Near East. It is ancient history, anthropology, and Biblical studies wrapped into one fascinating read.

I was able to make a rather complex subject easy to understand. I hope you will buy the book and discover answers to some perennial questions, such as:

Was the social structure of the biblical Hebrew patriarchal?
Who were the Horite Hebrew and the Sethite Hebrew?
Where is the oldest known site of Horite Hebrew worship?
Why the Hebrew ruler-priests were in Canaan before Abraham's time.
Why did so many Hebrew men have two wives?
What was the difference in status between wives and concubines?
What types of authority did the biblical Hebrew recognize?
What were some symbols of authority among the early Hebrew?
How did their acute observation of the order of creation inform their reasoning?
If Judaism is NOT the Faith of the early Hebrew, what did they believe?

I hope you will find the book helpful and informative. The sequel tells describes the lives of the First Hebrew Ladies and will be available in July 2024.

Thank you for reading the posts at this blog.

Best wishes to you all,

Alice C. Linsley

Monday, May 30, 2022

A Word of Thanks

Dear readers,

I deeply appreciate your attention, comments, and perspectives. Thank you! Over the past 15 years you have helped me to refine my research in the field of Biblical Anthropology, an emerging science.

Some of you have joined the international Facebook group The Bible and Anthropology where we continue the conversations more interactively than is possible at a blog such as this. I hope more of you will consider joining that forum.

May the Lord of Life bless you all.

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

Monday, March 28, 2022

Series on Genesis 1-11

This Naqada period pot dates to 3200 B.C.

Genesis 1-11 is full of anthropologically significant data. This series looks at those chapters through the lens of anthropology and presents a detailed picture of Abraham's ancestors. I hope that readers of this blog will enjoy this series. I look forward to reading your comments and addressing your questions.

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

An Anthropologist Looks at Genesis 1

The phrase "In the beginning" is common in African creation stories and songs.

Genesis 2

God created the first parents. Adam and Eve are the founding parents of the early Hebrew caste.

Genesis 3

The serpent as an enemy who is trampled under His feet.

Genesis 4

The first verifiably historical persons in the Bible as shown through kinship analysis.

Genesis 5

Endogamy among the early Hebrew. The lines of Cain and Seth intermarried. The lines of Ham and Shem intermarried. The lines of Abraham and Nahor intermarried.

Genesis 6

The Proto-Saharan ruler Noah and his sons.

Genesis 7

Noah saves his royal ménagerie.

Genesis 8

Boats and cows of the Proto-Saharans.

Genesis 9

The father's curse does not negate the Heavenly Father's covenant of blessing.

Genesis 10

An early ethnography with no mention of castes, evidence of a late source.

Genesis 11

The movement of Abraham's ancestors out of Africa. The Hebrew ruler-priest caste spread the rudimentary Messianic Faith wherever they dispersed.

Wednesday, March 31, 2021

Something to Consider

Wall painting at Thebes

Many of the topics explored at this blog are also discussed in the international Facebook forum The Bible and Anthropology. Those discussions are lively and informative.

That forum is not for theological conversation. Rather, we identify and discuss anthropologically significant data in the canonical texts. The purpose of the group is to advance the science of Biblical Anthropology.

These are a few of the topics we consider at that forum:

The social structure of the biblical Hebrew
Kinship analysis
Ancient biblical populations
Burial practices and grave goods of biblical populations
Artifacts and dating
Solar symbolism
Origins of the Messianic Faith (before Judaism)
The dispersion of the Horite Hebrew ruler-priest caste
Linguistic connections between Sumerian, Akkadian, and other Semitic languages
DNA studies that pertain to biblical populations

If you enjoy reading the posts at Biblical Anthropology, you will enjoy the discussions at The Bible and Anthropology. The members come from around the globe and represent different religions, including Judaism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. We even have a few agnostics. Consider joining the forum. You would be welcome!

Alice C. Linsley

Monday, June 22, 2020

Understanding the Science of Biblical Anthropology

Standing stones at the Gezer "high place" in Israel.

(Photo: Dennis Cole)

Alice C. Linsley

The science of Biblical Anthropology is relatively new. It has been developing over the past 40 years and is now producing mature fruit in the form of academic papers, documented blog posts, and group conversations.

Biblical Anthropology is an empirical approach to the biblical texts. Reading Scripture through the lens of cultural anthropology is rigorous because no assumption can stand untested, and no assertion can be made without data.

The 66 canonical books of the Bible are the primary resource for Biblical anthropologists. Biblical archaeologists dig artifacts to better understand the material culture of peoples who lived in the Holy Land. Likewise, Biblical Anthropologists dig anthropologically significant data out of the pages of the Bible to better understand the many biblical populations.

Anthropologists are interested in material culture. We want to know what people made and what materials they used in daily life and in ceremonies. What tools did they use? We explore their beliefs about life after death by investigating burial practices. We want to understand what the different peoples believed about the creation of the world so we examine their creation and origin stories. We want to know how they organized for war, and where the rulers derived their authority. What was the social structure of the biblical Hebrew?

Biblical anthropology also traces the antecedents of practices and beliefs to shed light on why things were done, not simply how they were done. Uncovering antecedents is a central task of Biblical Anthropology. Where did the idea originate that humans were created from the soil? What is the origin of Messianic expectation? Where is the oldest known site of Hebrew worship? What is the significance of the prevalent solar symbolism among biblical populations?

Culture traits, ceremonies, rituals, and religious beliefs do not spring suddenly into existence. They develop organically over time from traditions received from the ancestors. Biblical anthropology provides tested methods and tools to push back the veil of time, to uncover anthropologically significant data that clarifies precedents, etiology, and context.

The discoveries made in Biblical Anthropology prove helpful to anthropology students, academics, clergy, historians, and ethnographers. They dispel false and racist notions. Kinship analysis of the king lists in Genesis 4 and 5 make it clear that these rulers are not the first people living on Earth. Bishop Ussher's timeline is not a reliable way to calculate Earth's age. All the peoples of the Earth did not come from Noah’s three sons. Ham, Shem and Japheth do not represent three races. Skin color and linguistic diversity are not the result of God’s judgment at the Tower of Babel.

After 40 years of pioneering this field, I am sad to say that Biblical Anthropology still is not recognized as a legitimate science, and there are few who are able to contribute to the research. In the hope that more would engage in this work, I set forth the most basic principles of Biblical Anthropology.

Guiding Principles of Biblical Anthropology

These six principles shape the work of Biblical Anthropology.

1. Immersion in the context: Understanding traits of a given culture by viewing them in their own context. For biblical anthropologists this involves immersion in the biblical texts to understand the culture traits of biblical populations. Every person aspiring to do this work should begin by reading the 66 books of the Bible at least 3 times, using different translations. Translations based on the Septuagint (LXX), the Masoretic Text (MT), and the Vulgate do not agree in every detail. The differences are significant.

Biblical narratives are connected to place and time, to environmental conditions, to the rising of rivers, the hewing of local stone, to the expansion of herds, and the threshing of wheat. The narratives speak to us from behind the veil of antiquity, revealing the world of our ancestors.

A good knowledge of the canonical books is necessary to see recurring themes and patterns such as the prevalence of solar symbolism and the consistent marriage and ascendancy pattern of the Hebrew rulers.

2. Impartial observation: Viewing another culture on its own terms as much as possible. Science requires objectivity. In this work, personal preferences and moral judgments are withheld. It is important to know that the Hebrew ruler-priests had two wives. We neither condone nor condemn polygyny.

We do not impose denominational interpretations on the text. The Bible is not used to attack an opponent. Proof texting is forbidden. We do not impose the "Five Solas" of the Reformation on the Bible. We do not view the Bible through the lens of Dispensationalism. We do not use the Bible to support an agenda.

We recognize and accept contextual incongruities as evidence that the biblical texts represent different sources and different times in history.

3. Cross-cultural perspective: Investigating how cultures are interconnected globally. For Biblical Anthropology this requires investigation of the ways in which biblical populations were related, how they influenced one another, and how they dispersed globally.

We correlate the biblical data with DNA studies, linguistics, migration and climate studies, historical records, ancient texts, and archaeology.

4. Holism: Looking at how the parts of a cultural system interrelate. Cultures are like woven fabric. There are many threads and the patterns are often complex. Investigation of the individual threads is necessary if we want to see the whole fabric. Studying particulars comes before conclusions about universals. This method makes it possible to state facts and avoid opinions.

In Biblical Anthropology the most basic threads are those that pertain to family and clan. That is why kinship analysis is the first tool of Biblical Anthropology. Kinship analysis clarifies the historicity of Adam and the rulers of Genesis 4, 5, 10, 11, 25 and 36. It dispels notions of incest that are contrary to the marriage laws of the ancient Hebrew. It clarifies familial and clan relationships. Analysis of the marriage and ascendancy of the biblical Hebrew reveals the continuity of tradition from Adam to Moses and from Moses to Jesus' family.

5. Meticulous dating: To avoid anachronisms and conflation of data, biblical anthropologists must develop a rigorously accurate timeline. For example, we must not confuse the religion of Judaism with the religion of the ancient Hebrews. Even Jews recognize that what Abraham believed and what is believed by Jews today are not the same.

Rabbi Stephen F. Wise, former Chief Rabbi of the United States, explains: "The return from Babylon and the introduction of the Babylonian Talmud mark the end of Hebrewism and the beginning of Judaism.” The Talmud is the primary authority for Jews because it shapes their ethnic identity.

4400 year texts speak of the Hebrew ruler-priest caste. In ancient Akkadian the caste was called "Abrutu" from the word abru, meaning priest. The Hebrew were established in Africa, Southern Europe, the Levant, and Mesopotamia 1800+ years before Judaism.

6. Assessing antiquity: In general, it is true that the more geographically widespread a culture trait the older it is. The 100,000-year custom of red ocher burial is an example. It indicates that the hope of life after death among archaic humans was associated with a symbolic blood covering.

Related reading: Abraham's Faith Lives in Christianity; Biblical Anthropology is the Work of Christians; Pursuing Truth as Persons of Faith; INDEX of Topics

Monday, May 20, 2019

Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in the Bible

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

The discipline of Biblical Anthropology can be daunting. It involves gathering data about many biblical populations, not simply the Hebrews, the Israelites, and the Jews. Even these populations are not the same.

Black and red Nubians

The divisions, clan identities, and aggregations such as 3-clan confederations among biblical populations are based on two principles: recognition of blood bonds, and the necessity of unity for defense and offence. Small populations are easily absorbed or wiped out. Some biblical populations cannot be identified.

Understanding the Bible requires more than an understanding of biblical theology. It also requires understanding the cultural contexts of these biblical populations:

Abiezrites

Amalekites
Ammonites
Amorites
Anakim
Arabians

Arkites

Arvadites
Arameans
Assyrians
Babylonians
Bithynians
Cappadocians
Carthaginians
Chaldeans
Cretans
Cypriots
Dedanites
Edomites (Idumeans)
Egyptians
Elamites
Emim (Moabite name for the Raphaim, Deut.2:11)
Ethiopians
Galatians

Geshurites
Girgashites
Greek

Hagrites
Hebrews
Hittites
Horites
Hurrians
Hyksos
Iberians
Ishmaelites
Israelites
Jebusites
Jews
Kenites
Kushites
Luddites
Macedonians
Madai
Medes
Midianites
Moabites
Nabataeans
Nubians
Parthians
Perizzites
Persians
Phoenicians
Philistines
Phrygians
Raphaim
Romans
Samaritans
Scythians
Syrians

Zorites
Zumim

The list is long, but not comprehensive. There are some populations about which we find so little data in the Bible that they probably will remain obscure. Among them are the Kassites, Gerasenes, Gittites, Gizonites, Shunammites, Tizites, and Zuzim.

The Bible also speaks of general classifications, that is, populations that live in the same region, or share a common ancestry and culture. This is the case with the Canaanites. Among them the Bible lists Arkites, Arvadites, Girgashites, Hivites, Jebusites, Kenizzites, and Zemites. The terms "Barbarian" and "Greek" refer to many ethnic groups, as does the term "Kushite". The Bible speaks of Kushite Hebrew, that is, Hebrew descendants of Kush, one of Noah's grandsons (Gen. 10).

Some populations are known by different names at different periods of history. The Edomites are also called Seirites, and later called Idumeans. The Madai are also called Medes. The same is true for the Hebrew who are sometimes designated Hurrian or Horites, and "Abru" in ancient Akkadian texts.

To further complicate the picture, we have sects within these groups. The writer of Acts identifies a group among the Greek speakers as "Hellenists" (Acts 6, 8, and 9). Among the Jews we find Essenes, Herodians, Karaites, Pharisees, Sadducees, and Zealots.

The complexity of ethnic and cultural identity is evident in the way the Turkish-born Apostle Paul describes himself: "Circumcised the eighth day, of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; concerning the law, a Pharisee..." (Philippians 3:5-6), and he was a Roman citizen.

Some group names do not refer to an ethnicity, but rather to a social status. That is true for the term "Nephilim" which refers to archaic rulers, or the "mighty men of old" (Gen. 10). Unfortunately, many Bibles render nephilim as “giants” when it should read “great ones.” Nephilim comes from the same root as the Aramaic npyl (nephil) which means great in rank or stature. This is equivalent to the Arabic nfy, meaning hunter. It is said concerning Nimrod that he was a “mighty hunter” or a “mighty man” before the Lord. Genesis 6 describes the Nephilim as gibboriym, meaning “powerful ones.”

Other names refer to clans. The Anakim are a people descended from Anak. The Anakim were organized into a three-clan confederation. The three clans were named for the highest ranked sons of Anak - Sheshai, Ahiman and Talmai (Josh.15:14). Anak and his Anakim people dwelt in the region of Hebron. Anak's father was Arba. Hebron was called Kiriath-Arba. The Anakim are associated with the Nephilim (Num. 13:33), with the Raphaim (Deut. 2:10), and with the clan of Caleb (Josh.15:13). Therefore, Caleb’s offensive against the Anakim was a war against some of his kinsmen.

The "people of Israel" are comprised of multiple clans descended from Jacob. Like the descendants of Anak, the descendants of Jacob fought among themselves. The clan of Benjamin was nearly wiped out by its fellow Israelites.

We note a familial relationship between clans that share certain radicals. Note the “le” prefix in these clan names: Le’hab, Le’sha, Le’tushim and Le’ummim (Gen. 25:3). The Semitic languages typically have particles that begin with L (le, lu or la). Le is a Hebrew prefix, but it appears in older languages such as Akkadian. "La’baru" pertains to granting long life and is related to the Akkadian word la’biru, meaning old. There is also linguistic evidence of three-clan confederations, such as Jubal, Jabal and Tubal; Uz, Huz and Buz, and Og, Gog and Magog.

Some clan names indicate a caste. The Tahash clan were related to Abraham the Hebrew. One of Abraham's nephews was Tahash (Gen. 22:24). Tahash refers to a tanner of animal skins. Exodus 25:5 links "five ram skins dyed red" with "tahash skins." The Tahash caste of Hebrew ritually prepared the skins of sacrificed animals for use in solemn oaths, such as the passing of leather sandals (Ruth 4:7).

Another caste was the Horite Hebrew. The Horite and Sethite Hebrew were a moiety; two ritual groups serving the same king and worshipping the same God. These were priests who served the High God and his son. The Horite Hebrew priests were unique among the priest castes of the ancient world and greatly respected for their purity and sobriety. Some prominent members of this caste include Abraham, Moses, Joshua, Samuel, and David.

Biblical anthropology focuses on the complex diversity of biblical populations and is a great aid in understanding the Bible on a deeper level.