Royal Hebrew High Places

The winged sun was a symbol of the High God.

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

The early Hebrew lords such as Cain and Nimrod are remembered for their city building efforts. They established settlements at high elevations near permanent water sources. These are what the Bible calls “the high places”. High places were fortified settlements on hills or mountains. The higher elevations made defense of these settlements easier. Built by rulers, the fortifications protected their palaces, royal temples, treasuries, and garrisons.

There were many high places in the ancient world. They were identified by the words "kar" (rock shelter) and "tamana" (great place). The term kar is associated with burnt offerings, charcoal and soot. The Turkish word kara means "black". In Magyar, korom refers to soot, as does the Korean word kurim. In the Sumerian language, Ekur (É.KUR) refers to a mountain house, pyramid, or elevated temple. The place name tamama has been found in over 188 countries and five continents. Votive offerings made at the tamama high places were called tama or tamata. The words are related to the ancient Akkadian word tamitu, meaning oath or pledge.

Some fortified settlements and temples were served by Hebrew royal priests. This is especially evident along the Nile River. Nekhen, the oldest known site of Horite Hebrew worship (4000 B.C.), had a temple with a large oval courtyard surrounded by a mud-plastered reed fence. The courtyard was paved with multiple layers of compressed mud. This temple appears to be the pattern for later temples as depicted on seals from the First Dynasty of Egypt (3100 – 2686 B.C.).

Nekhen was an established settlement at the time that some place Adam and Eve. in history. However, priestly some texts found in the Nile Valley have been dated to 4200 BC. Archaeology and anthropology provide some of the backstory to Adam and Eve, the parents of the Hebrew rulers Cain and Seth. These are historical people, but clearly, they were not the only Hebrew lords and ladies 6000 years ago.

The Hebrew ruler-priests living along the Nile were organized into two ritual groups or moieties: the Horite Hebrew and the Sethite Hebrew. The two groups helped each other but were often in competition. Descriptions of the Horites and Sethites are plentiful in ancient texts such as the Pyramid Texts (2400-2200 BC). These descriptions make it clear that the Horites and the Sethites maintained separate settlements. Utterance 308 addresses them as separate entities: "Hail to you, Horus in the Horite Mounds! Hail to you, Horus in the Sethite Mounds!" The more prestigious Horite Hebrew settlements were usually at a higher elevation that those of the Sethite Hebrew. Utterance 470 contrasts the Horite mounds with the Sethite mounds, designating the Horite Mounds "the High Mounds".

Multiple high places attracted pilgrims and generated revenue even as pilgrims and tourists are drawn today to shrines in the British Isles, France, Iran, Italy, Spain, and Jerusalem. The greater the fame and prestige of the shrine or temple, the larger the crowds. Naturally, competition arose between the sacred sites. That competition is evident in the Deuteronomist Historian’s antagonism toward all "high places" other than Jerusalem. A late source (800-400 BC), the Deuteronomist sought to centralize worship at the Jerusalem temple, and to shape national observances such as the Passover and Tabernacles.

Competition between the sacred high places of the Jews and Samaritans is mentioned in the New Testament. When Jesus was going to Samaria, the Samaritans who believed that he might be the Messiah hoped that he would establish Mt. Gerizim as the center of his kingdom. However, they no longer welcomed him once they learned that Jesus had "set his face to Jerusalem" (Lk. 9:51).

 

Related reading: Hebrew Priests at the High Places; Rulers of the Ancient World; Sun Cities of the Ancient World; Horite and Sethite Mounds; Competition Between the Horites and the Sethites

Four Excellent Questions

 

Sacred Bull. Photo by Carolyn Whitson

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

Recently a member of the Bible and Anthropology Facebook group asked four excellent questions that I believe would interest readers of this blog.

1. Could you suggest a "beginners" book for Biblical Anthropology?

The science of Biblical Anthropology draws all its data from the canonical Scriptures. Begin by reading the 66 books of the Bible. Take notes on anthropologically significant data such as family relationships (kinship), marriage practices, burial customs, sacred symbolism, gender roles, beliefs about the High God and life after death, territorial claims, the geographical positions of settlements and cities (especially in relation to each other), and religious practices. As there are hundreds of biblical populations, it is useful to focus mainly on the Hebrew ruler-priest caste. My book The First Lords of the Earth: An Anthropological Study also might be helpful.

2. How do I make sense of the genealogies in Genesis?

The so-called genealogies in Genesis are king lists that reveal a marriage and ascendancy pattern that is distinctively Hebrew. That pattern is evident when we diagram the material. This diagram is an example.

The descendants of Cain and Seth intermarried. Naamah (Gen. 4) married her patrilineal cousin Methuselah (Gen. 5). Cousin brides, such as Naamah, often named their firstborn sons after their fathers. The cousin bride's naming prerogative is a distinctive feature of the Hebrew marriage and ascendancy pattern.

3. Should I take Exodus at literal value? The 10 plagues seem fantastical, and I wonder if they were added into the story to make a theological point.

Genesis tells us about the early Hebrew ruler-priests (4000-2000 BC) who dispersed widely in the ancient world. They lived long before Judaism emerged as a world religion. Exodus is a critical book for Judaism. It shapes the Jewish narrative as the people of Israel with a claim to the land, and places Moses as a central figure. Most of the "plagues" have been identified with natural causes. However, the timing of these events could only be by God's authority and power, and that seems to be the theological point.

4. What is meant by sacred symbolism?

Sacred symbols for the early Hebrew include animals such as the ram, the falcon and the bull calf. These are Messianic symbols. The sun was the symbol of the High God for the Hebrew, so solar symbolism is found throughout the Bible. Divinely appointed persons are said to be "overshadowed", or they have a solar symbol in their names such as the initial Y. This article explains further: Appointment by Divine Overshadowing

Related reading: Lamech Segment Analysis; Biblical Anthropology: Another Reason to Believe; Reading Genesis as Verifiable History

Turkey's Role in the Spread of Christianity

 

Archaeologists discovered five small 1,300-year-old loaves of bread at the Topraktepe archaeological site in Turkey. One of them bears the image of Jesus Christ the Sower. This loaf was intended for use as Communion bread. 

The part of Southern Europe where Turkey is located was Christianized very early. Certainly, long before the emergence of Islam as a world religion. This Communion bread testifies to the celebration of the Holy Eucharist among the Christians of Turkey. 

It was in Antioch Turkey that Christ's followers were first called "Christians" (Acts 11:26). The evangelistic work of Paul and Barnabas was promoted by the leaders of the Antioch church.

St. Paul was from Tarsus in Turkey. Paul enjoyed a classical Greek education in his hometown, a recognized center of learning, with a famous university that the Greek geographer Strabo considered better than the academies of Athens and Alexandria. The Stoic philosopher Athenodorus lived and taught in Tarsus before Paul was born, and Paul was acquainted with his teachings on the conscience. Athenodorus said that, “Everyman's conscience is his god.” The conscience does not occur in the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament). However, Paul makes abundant use of the Greek word for conscience in his letters to the early churches.

The Orontes in Turkey marked the northern boundary of Amur-ru. The Orontes (Draco) was the chief river of the Levant and had sufficient depth for boats to sail up the river from the Mediterranean near modern Beirut in Lebanon. This was aided by the north-flowing currents. Meroe on the Orontes was a fortress on the spur of Mount Silpius overlooking the Orontes. It was named IO, which designated it as a “pillared place dedicated to the Creator.” The O is a solar symbol and the emblem of the Creator. IO had a twin city on the opposite side of the river: AntIO, known as Antioch. Meroe on the Orontes was thousands of miles from Meroe on the Nile. Meroe in Turkey was the farthest outpost of the Egyptian Empire, and the city would have had Amur-ru. "Amur-ru" is also the name of the northernmost district of Egypt's empire and it included the coastal region from Ugarit to Byblos.

Twin cities were established along major rivers such the Nile, the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Orontes. The twin cities of Nekhen and Nekheb, were on the Nile River, and the twin cities of Pe and Dep are examples. Pe and Dep merged into the city that the Greeks later called Buto. Buto sits on the Butic River, a tributary of the Nile Delta.

Related reading: Excavation finds 1,300-year-old breads stamped with Christ | The Jerusalem Post; The Amorites: Royal Hebrew Scribes?; Horite and Sethite Mounds

Written Communication versus Spoken Communication

 

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

People seeking to read the Bible in the original languages study biblical Hebrew and Koine Greek. Most of the biblical texts appear in these languages.

Koine Greek was the language of the Hellenistic, Roman, and early Byzantine Empires. It was the language of trade, education, and the New Testament. 

Some texts in both the Old Testament and the New Testament appear in Aramaic, the ancient language spoken by many in Jesus' time and before. Portions of Ezra and Daniel are in Aramaic. 

None of these languages were spoken by Abraham and his Hebrew ancestors. They are relatively recent forms of communication. 

The languages of trade, education, and religion in Abraham's time were Ancient Akkadian and Proto Egyptian. Ancient Akkadian is the oldest known Semitic language. "Proto-Egyptian" predates the emergence of Egypt as a political entity. Both Ancient Akkadian and Proto-Egyptian diverged from the Afroasiatic language family, the oldest known language family.

The older material in the Bible contains some words that scholars have identified as Akkadian. Understanding that material requires considering roots or radicals that are older than the Hebrew language. We may speak of those roots as "Proto-Semitic".

Dr. Christopher Ehret believes that pre-Proto-Semitic roots are closely related to the Proto-Afroasiatic roots, making consideration of the Semitic etymology secondary rather than a prerequisite for the reconstructive work of comparative linguistics.

The relationship of ancient spoken languages is difficult to trace. Linguistic affinities have been verified among Berber, Ancient Egyptian, Coptic, Chadic, Semitic and Cushitic languages. These are classified as Afroasiatic. All of these spoken languages suggest connection to the Ancient Nile River Valley (ANRV). 

The Early Hebrew Used More than One Language

Abraham and his Hebrew ancestors lived in many parts of the Ancient World and spoke the languages of the peoples among whom they lived. They were a caste of ruler-priests who probably had a secret language used exclusively among themselves. This is not uncommon among castes. For example, the Inadan metal working caste uses a secret language which they call TeNeT (TNT), and they claim to be related to David of Judah (National Geographic, Aug. 1979, p. 389).

Further, the linguistically skilled Hebrew served as royal scribes. They used different scripts depending on the recipient of the ruler's missive. However, the scripts they used do not indicate the languages they spoke.

As Ahmed Achrati notes, "The names used for the designation of ancient scripts are sometimes purely taxonomic inventions, with no known connection to the referent ethnic group. The vexing question of identifying the people who used a given script is further complicated by the fact that people who use a script do not necessarily speak the language of that script."

There is a clear connection between the scripts used in the Nile Valley and the Indus Valley, two regions where the Hebrew were influential. Compare the Egyptian and Indus pottery inscriptions above. 

There is linguistic and archaeological evidence pointing to the African origin of the Dravidian speakers in India (Aravanan 1980; Winters 2007). The Indian archaeologist B.B. Lal (1963) believes that the Dravidian speaking people may have belonged to the C-Group people who dispersed from Nubia into Arabia, Iran, and India as evidenced by the presence of their distinctive Black-and-Red Ware (BRW). The C-Group people lived in northern Nubia, southern Egypt, and southward to the modern Sudan between 2300-1500 B.C. 

Lal explains: "At Timos the Indian team dug up several megalithic sites of ancient Nubians which bear an uncanny resemblance to the cemeteries of early Dravidians which are found all over Western India from Kathiawar to Cape Comorin. The intriguing similarity extends from the subterranean structure found near them. Even the earthenware ring-stands used by the Dravidians and Nubians to hold pots were identical."

The Nubian megaliths of which Lal speaks date to about 3000 years before the present.

There are linguistic connections between the ancient languages spoken by Abraham's ancestors and the Dravoid peoples. They share ancient Akkadian roots, as has been recognized by Hindu scholars. The Indian scholar, Malati J. Shendge, concluded that the language of the Harappans of the Indus Valley was Akkadian.

Ajay Pratap Singh has written, "Comparisons of Akkadian and Sanskrit words yielded at least 400 words in both languages with comparable phonetic and semantic similarities. Thus, Sanskrit has, in fact, descended from Akkadian."

 

Pre-Islamic Arabian scripts

Numerous scripts have been found throughout the Arabian Peninsula. Some of the oldest Arabic scripts are called "Dedanite" because the highest concentration of these scripts has been found in the region of Dedan. The Dedanites were involved in trade and commerce, as mentioned in Isaiah and Ezekiel. They are described as descendants of Cush and Abraham by his cousin wife, Keturah. The Dedanites were kin to the people of Sheba and Tema,

At least one of these scripts also has been found in East Africa. The "monumental script" on the Almaqah altar found near the city of Wuqro in the region of Tigray, Ethiopia has been identified as Thamudic (Giovanni Garbini, 1976). Approximately 11000 Thamudic inscriptions have been found scattered from Syria to Ethiopia. Most are found in Yemen.

The bulk of the Thamudic texts, about 9000 of the inscriptions, were collected by the Philby-Ryckmans-Lippens expedition in central Arabia. The remaining Thamudic inscriptions come from north-west Arabia. These have been divided by Winnett into three groups: Thamudic B, C, and D. A fourth group E has been added by G. King.

Related reading:  Thamudic and Nabataean Inscriptions from Umm Al-Rasas by M.C.A. Macdonald; Thamudic Scripts; Early Written Signs; Religious and Cultural Exchanges Between Africa and India; Nimrod and the Nile-Indus Connection

The Hebrew and Their Donkeys

Donkeys were first domesticated from wild asses around 7000 years ago in East Africa.

(Photo Credit: Eric Lafforgue/Getty Images)

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

Wild donkeys were domesticated by the East Africans between 7000 and 4000 BC in the Red Sea Hills and the northern fringe of the Ethiopian highlands. (Ehret, Ancient Africa, p.64).

Donkeys enabled the transport of cargo across the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia and Pakistan. As Roger Blench states, "The spread of the donkey across Africa was linked with the proliferation of long-distance caravans." He notes that "Donkeys are used mainly as pack animals, either for carrying loads or for riding. In arid regions they are used together with camels to pull water from deep wells."

Historically, donkeys pulled carts, dragged mill stones, and drove olive presses. With the development of sedentary communal agriculture, they were used to plow the fields. However, the greatest claim to be made on their behalf involves their role in the emergence of trade across vast distances. And the early Hebrew were largely responsible for that development. They controlled many of the ancient trade routes, such as the Hula Valley and commerce along the major water ways. One means of control was to build twin settlements on opposites sides of the river. 

The early Hebrew (4000-2000 BC) dispersed widely in the ancient world, traded valuable commodities, established themselves in new territories, and influenced the religious beliefs of the people among whom they lived. There is little doubt that the donkey heled them to become wealthy. 

The Horite Hebrew of Edom and Seir are mentioned in Genesis 36.

The Horite Hebrew bred donkeys. Job's Horite Hebrew clan was associated with donkeys, the beasts of burden that make trade possible across vast regions. Job 30:3-7 portrays Job's people as "donkeys braying among the bushes". According to Genesis 36:24, Anah, the son of Zibeon and grandson of Seir the Horite, pastured his father's donkeys in the wilderness.

An early representation of donkeys is on an Egyptian palette dated c. 3100 BC. Donkeys were buried in elite cemeteries of the Nilotic peoples. In a royal funerary complex at Abydos, donkey skeletons were found in mudbrick graves. Donkeys indicated a clan's status.

The earliest known site of Horite Hebrew worship is at Nekhen on the Nile. Historical and archaeological data indicates that this was one of the early breeding grounds of the donkey. As Dr. Christopher Ehret notes, "Africans were the domesticators of the donkey, and animal that became a major stimulus for change in the relations of trade, there came the emergence of a new kind of town. Previously towns, where they did exist, as in Egypt and in the Levant and Mesopotamia, were principally temple centers and/or the governing centers of kingdoms. The new kind of town served instead primarily as a production center of goods destined for commerce or else as a trading center located as the crossroads of trade routes from one region to another, or both." (Ehret, Ancient Africa, pp. 67-68.)

Related reading: How donkeys changed the course of human history; Interview with Christopher Ehret; The Wealth of the Mesopotamian Rulers

Get Acquainted with the Author and Her Research

 

Dr. Alice C. Linsley is a pioneering figure in the science of Biblical Anthropology which identifies anthropologically significant data in the canonical texts. 

- Genesis and Biblical Anthropology: Dr. Linsley argues that Genesis chapters 1-11 constitute verifiable history, drawing on archaeological, anthropological, and linguistic evidence, and DNA studies.

- Early Hebrew History: Her research focuses on the social structure of the early Hebrew with their moieties: the Horite and Sethite Hebrew.  

- Ancient Nilotic and Hebrew Connections: Dr. Linsley explores the connections between proto-Egyptian "Nilotic" culture and the early Hebrew (4200-2000 BC), including the worship of God Father and his Son HR (Horus in Greek) among the Hebrew ruler-priests.

- Research Interests: Her research explores the connections between biblical narratives and ancient Nilotic cultures, including the early Hebrew ruler-priests of the Nile Valley. She demonstrates that the Hebrew rulers named in Genesis chapters 4, 5, 10, 11, 25 and 36 were historical figures through the application of kinship analysis, a tool of cultural anthropology. Analysis of the marriage and ascendancy pattern of these Hebrew rulers reveals an authentic kinship pattern, proving their historicity. Kinship analysis is a critical tool of Biblical Anthropology.

- Background: Dr. Linsley has over 35 years of experience in Biblical Anthropology and taught Philosophy, Ethics, and World Religions at Midway University in Kentucky.

- Expertise: Her work considers the cultures of ancient biblical populations, particularly the early Hebrew. She is also an administrator of the international Facebook group "The Bible and Anthropology".

- Publications: Dr. Linsley has written articles for various platforms, including Just Genesis, Biblical Anthropology, Ethics Forum, and Philosophers' Corner. She authored the book "The First Lords of the Earth: An Anthropological Study" which identifies the prestige, influence, and authority of the "Mighty Men of Old" (Gen. 6). A sequel titled "The First Ladies: An Anthropological Study" is scheduled for release in 2026.

- Speaking Engagements: Dr. Linsley often speaks at conferences and retreats, sharing her insights on Biblical Anthropology and its relevance to understanding biblical populations, especially the Hebrew ruler-priest caste and their connection to the Ancient Nile Valley Civilization (ANVC).

Related reading: When is the Evidence Sufficient?; The Hebrew Hierarchy of Sons; INDEX of Topics at Just Genesis; INDEX of Topics at Biblical Anthropology; Four Excellent Questions

The Israelite-Hebrew Mountain Covenants

 

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

Do you grasp the distinction between the terms Hebrew and Israelite? And between Israelite and Jew? If not, please read this: Hebrew, Israelite or Jew?

Do you recognize that Judaism is not the faith of Abraham the Hebrew? If not read this: Judaism is Not the Faith of Abraham.

Before Abraham's time (c.2000 BC), the Hebrew ruler-priest caste had dispersed in many directions. They moved into the land of Canaan long before the time of Moses. That is why the Israelites met kinsmen in many places. The Israelites who left Egypt are described as a mixed multitude (Exodus 12:38). Some were descendants of the Hebrew who had been living in the Nile Valley for at least 2000 years before the time of Moses.  Some were the descendants of the Hebrew chief Jacob or Israel. 

Detailed study of the ancestry of Terah, Abraham, Nahor, Isaac and Jacob reveals that these families and the Hebrew living in Canaan, Edom and Midian share common ancestors. Canaan is named for Cain whose descendants, the Kenites, lived in Canaan. Edom or Idumea was the land of red people such as Esau, Isaac's proper heir. Some of the Horite Hebrew chiefs of that region are listed in Genesis 36. The land of Midian is named for one of Abraham's sons by his cousin wife, Keturah (Gen. 25).

After leaving Egypt, Jacob's descendants (the "Israelites") journeyed east-northeast by stages, making contact with Hebrew kinsmen at each stage. The first people to help them were their cousins among the Midianites in the region of Horeb, the Midianite sacred mountain (Deut. 29:1). 

The Israelites also received help from the Hebrew chiefs of Edom. These Hebrew were kin to Seir the Horite Hebrew named in Genesis 36. The Edomite sacred mountain was Paran (Deut. 33:2). 

Crossing through Edomite territory (where Aaron was buried), the Hebrew people moved into Moab. They visited with Lot’s descendants and worshipped on Mount Nebo (Deut. 32:49), where Moses died.

 At each of these sacred sites, the reunion of kin was celebrated by a covenant that included animal sacrifice and a night of feasting. These covenants likely resembled the covenant made between Jacob and Laban at Mizpah (Gen. 31:44-54). The Hebrew ruler-priests had established themselves at sheltered high places throughout the Ancient Near East well before the time of Moses and the Exodus. 

Related reading: The Exodus Narrative from a Different Angle; Horite and Sethite Mounds; The Hebrew were a Caste; Hazor's Destruction: Another Theory; The Edomites and the Color Red; Adam Was a Red Man; The High Places; They Believed in a Messiah 6000 Years Ago