Midianite Potters of Edom

A tent-shrine or tabernacle was discovered at Timnaʿthat resembled the biblical description of the tabernacle of Moses in the wilderness. Stone-lined post-holes were found with acacia wood fragments and numerous copper rings. There were copious fragments of copper wire knots likely used to suspend the tent curtains.

At all sites where Midianite sherds were found (B. Rothenberg and Glass 1983; Parr 1988; Knauf 1988: 21-23), their dating was of the New Kingdom period of Timna, an industrial-scale metallurgical site in and around the Wadi Arabah in ancient Edom. The region was rich in copper and the metal work done there appears to have involved religious ritual. Juan Manuel Tebes points out that the Midianite ceramic wares also appear "consistently in cultic contexts, administrative buildings, and burial offerings."

In the early 2000's, Dr. Thomas E. Levy led an archaeological survey that yielded earlier dates than had been assigned to the Edomite kingdom. The team found scarabs, painted pottery shards, metal arrowheads, hammers, grinding stones, and slag heaps. Dr. Levy stated, "Only a complex society such as a paramount chiefdom or primitive kingdom would have the organizational know-how to produce copper metal on such an industrial scale." 

An "impressive amount of Midianite ware" was found around the tent-shrine at Timna. The Midianites were related to Abraham through his son Midian, born of Abraham's cousin wife Keturah (Gen. 25). They should be considered a Horite Hebrew clan of Edom. Moses married his cousin Zipporah, a daughter of the Midianite priest Jethro. Moses' father married a Horite woman of Edom (see diagram above).

At Timna there was a shrine to Hathor, the mother of Horus. (Horus is derived from the Ancient Egyptian HR, meaning "Most High One.") Hathor was the patron of the Horite metal workers at Timna and at other metal workers sites in the region. A temple dedicated to Hathor was discovered at the southwestern edge of Mt. Timna by Professor Beno Rothenberg of Hebrew University. In his book Timna, Rothenberg concluded that the peoples living in the area were "partners not only in the work but in the worship of Hathor." (Timna, p. 183)

Concerning House 314 at Tel Masos near Beersheba Juan Tebes writes: “Within several of its habitations, rests of metallurgical activities were visible on the ground, possibly connected to a ritual function, as has been suggested by the appearance of ‘human’ figurines very similar to those found at the Hathor temple of Timna."

Tel Masos sits at the gateway to Hebron where Sarah resided. Keturah likely resided at or near Tel Masos or Beersheba. These sites were within Abraham's territory in Edom as shown on the map above. Note the placement of the wives on a north-south axis, a characteristic of the Horite marriage pattern involving two wives.

Horite Hebrew priests were active in metal work, as is evidence in the stories of Aaron and Moses fabricating ritual objects. They were rather widely dispersed in the ancient world. Horite Hebrew priests were found in Aram, Edom, Judah, and Moab. The Midianite potters were among them.


Related reading: The Chiefs of Edom, The Substance of Abraham's Faith, The Ra-Horus-Hathor Narrative; A Land Whose Stones are Iron and From Whose Hill You May Mine Copper.; The Antiquity of the Edomite Rulers

Houses in Iron Age Beersheba

Photo: The Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University/Courtesy Ze’ev Herzog.

Iron Age settlements excavated in Judah and Edom reveal that the houses were oriented to the rising sun. This is what Avraham Faust, Professor of Archaeology at Bar-Ilan University, noticed in his excavation at Beersheba, the southern boundary of Abraham's territory in Edom. The arrangement, as show in the photo above indicates that a westerly orientation was avoided.

Abraham's territory extended between the settlements of his two wives. Sarah resided in Hebron and Keturah resided in Beersheba to the south. This was his territory about 1000 years before the Iron Age (c.1200-550 BC).

The Iron Age settlement at Beersheba demonstrates its ancient residents preferred their houses oriented to the east. Of the houses excavated at the site only one in 29 doorways was built facing west. Abraham Faust argues that Israelite cosmology is responsible for this pattern. However, the pattern is found among other peoples in settlements that are even older. The Sun was a sacred symbol for many biblical peoples among whom the Hebrew were living. It represented the Creator who was known by many names: Ra, Ani, Azu, YHWH, El, etc.

Both Edomite and Midianite pottery have been discovered at Beersheba. A four-horned brazen altar identical in structural to the altar used later by the Israelites was uncovered in 1973. This discovery was made by a team under the direction of Yohanan Aharoni and Ze'ev Herzog of Tel Aviv University.

The team encountered an ancient storage wall that contained the stones of the altar. Three of the stones still had large horns projecting from them, but the horn of the fourth stone had been broken off. Yet still another stone had the carved image of a serpent, probably indicating Kenite construction. The stones, which had been incorporated into a wall, were reassembled to assume their former shape and dated to the time of the Patriarchs. The altar may have been destroyed during Hezekiah’s attempts to eradicate all shrines outside Jerusalem.

Beersheba had strategic importance because it was the largest settlement in the Negev. It guarded the trade routes between Mesopotamia and Egypt and between the Nile Delta and Southern Arabia. Its fortifications in the late Iron Age were impressive and included a moat that encircled the city and a steeply-sloped earthen rampart. Beyond the rampart the city was surrounded by thick stone walls. The gate was a chambered type, and inside the gate archaeologists found an incense altar at the high place, just as described in II Kings 23:8.

The miners of this region venerated Hathor, the mother of Horus, called the "son" of God.

Related reading: The Antiquity of the Edomite Rulers; A Tent for the Sun; Why Cows Were Sacred in the Ancient World; The Serpent of Moses's Staff: Horned Altars and Horned Sacred Vessels

Nubian Captives

Alice C. Linsley

In this detail taken from Treasures of Egypt and Nubia, we see a reproduction of a Ippolito Rosellini painting done during the 1825 Franco-Italian expedition to Egypt. Red and black Nubian captives are roped together and the rope is pulled by the Pharaoh whose back is shown at the bottom right.

It is evident from another image that both red and black are bound.

Incense burners found at Addi Akaweh in the Tigray region of Ethiopia bear an inscription that says the region was ruled by three kings jointly ca. 2800 years ago. They ruled with their queens over a population of black and red citizens. One commentators states that the Shebans were red (like the Ainu) and the Hebrews were black. This has not be verified. It seems more likely that Nubian parents often had children of different color. This happens even today and sometimes with twins.

Genesis indicates that Esau was red. Was Jacob black?


Notes on Sheba:

The Queen of Sheba probably did not rule over the same territory as her very powerful ancestors named in Genesis. By the time of Solomon came to power Sheba's territory was diminished. David likely took control of some of those lands in the south. Remember, Sheba claimed to have a legitimate right to the throne in Jerusalem (and he probably did have a legitimate claim). He lost his life when he took refuge in the city of Abel Beth Maacah. He was beheaded there (2 Samuel 20:1-22).

Beersheba means the Well of Sheba. It was a principal settlement and very old center for metal work. Jews will deny this since Abraham lived there, as did Isaac. They interpret Beersheba to mean the well of seven.

Bilquis is mentioned in Yoruba lore. There are some problems with the alignments of the stories, however. A huge barrier wall has been discovered in Nigeria which the locals say is associated with Queen Bilquis. This seems to come from later Arabic sources though. I believe, however, the local people are correct in their association of the wall with the Shebans because they were kin to the Jebusites and the Ijebu still live in that place. Gen. 10 indicates that both the Shebans and teh Jebusties were Kushites. Jerusalem was originally a Jebusite or Ijebu shrine city. The Sheban (also spelled Sebans; Sabaeans) are clan of Joktan, son of Eber (Ebry) om Genesis 10:27-28). In Gen. 10:6-7 we find their ancestors are called Seba and Sheba and they are identified as Kushites. According to Vedic tradition, the Kushites ruled the ancient world for 7000 years.

Jesus said, "The Queen of the South will rise up at the judgment with the men of this generation and condemn them, for she came from the ends of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon, and behold, something greater than Solomon is here." (Matt. 12: 42; Luke 11: 31)

Related reading: Biblical Sheba and Nubians Linked

Hazor's Destruction: Another Theory

Tel Hazor

Alice C. Linsley

Known in Joshua’s day as “the head of all those kingdoms,” Hazor is the largest tell in Israel at 200 acres. It was the main urban center for the large city-state that was culturally influenced by the Egyptians. 

The Horite Hebrew priests there were devotees of the High God, his son HR, and HR's mother Hathor. The conflict between the Israelite warriors who attacked Hazor may have been a conflict between native Hebrew people and the invading Hebrew under Joshua. 

There are two accounts of the conquest of Canaan in the Bible. One would have us believe that the Israelites came out of Egypt and conquered the cities of Canaan under divine guidance. Those who want archaeology to validate the Biblical account will be content with this interpretation, but is it the most accurate interpretation?

Hershel Shanks has written that archaeology "sometimes provides evidence that seems to refute the Biblical account. That is the case, for example, with the Israelite conquest of the land as described in the Book of Joshua. The various cities that the Israelites supposedly conquered simply cannot be lined up with the archaeological evidence." (BAR, July-August 2013, p. 6)

Another version requires a deeper look at the Hebrew who were living dispersed among the Canaanites before the time of the Exodus. They were the priests, warriors, and metalworkers who enjoyed relatively high status in the Canaanite shrine settlements. Hazor was one of those shrine cities as evidenced by the discovery of the royal upper level with a chapel and offering table. The few preserved Egyptian hieroglyphs indicate that this shrine was dedicated by a Horite priest called Ra-hotep some time before 1250 BC.

The idea of dual origins appears to be true until one investigates the genealogical information and finds that the kinship pattern of Abraham and Moses is the pattern identified with and unique to the Horites. This should not surprise us since the Bible claims that Moses is a descendant of Abraham and Abraham's people were Horites whose cultural context was Nilo-Saharan.

The shrine cities in which the early Hebrew lived included Hazor, Ramah, Bethel, Jerusalem, Hebron and Beersheba. They were built on high ground and were mound settlements, as was Shechem, another Horite shrine, where there was an ombligo stone symbolizing the navel of the earth, or the sacred center. They had permanent water sources and were organized with separate neighborhoods for the ruling class, the elite tradesmen, and the commoners. Extended families lived in close proximity, usually with a common courtyard. The ruler's complex was on higher ground and included quarters for residential staff such as cooks, craftsmen, warriors and priests. The most holy shrine or small temple was often within the royal complex.

Northern Shrine Cities

Ramah, about 4 or 5 miles north-west of Jerusalem, is an important northern shrine as it was the home of the prophet Samuel whose father's two-wife pattern (1 Sam. 1) suggests that Samuel's family was Horite Hebrew. Ramah is also named in connection with the prophetess Deborah who judged from her date nut palm between Ramah and Bethel (note the south-north axis versus the west-east axis indicated by Abraham's tent being pitched between Bethel and Ai). This suggests that for some of Abraham's descendants the sacred center was not always identified with shrine cities. People seeking divine guidance had to make the effort to go out to the wilderness (cf. pilgrims going to John the Forerunner).

North of both Ramah and Bethel was the shrine city of Hazor. Tel Hazor was located north of the Sea of Galilee, between Ramah and Kadesh. It was set on a hill overlooking Lake Merom. Hazor had Middle and Late Bronze Age (2000-1200 B.C.) temples, palaces, and fortifications. It was a significant early city with an upper tell of 30 acres and a lower city of more than 175 acres. Besides Lake Merom, Hazor had a water supply system typical of other large settlements such as Jerusalem, Petra and Beersheba.

Hazor was the administrative center of an ancient territory. This is attested in Joshua 11:10: "Hazor in olden days was the capital of all these kingdoms." Grain and other commodities were brought as tribute to Hazor and were stored there. Excavations have uncovered huge storage facilities there. These and tunnels to the subterranean water pits testify to the importance of the city.

Amulet of Hathor found at Hazor

Hazor is mentioned in 14th century BC diplomatic correspondence between the Egyptian administration and its representatives in Canaan and Amurru (Amorites) during the New Kingdom. These are called the Amarna Letters. Hazor is also mentioned in earlier Execration texts, and in 18th century BC documents found in Mari on the Euphrates River.

From the Upper Egyptian Amarna letters come evidence that the king of Hazor was under the rule of the Egyptian Pharaoh. Other rulers mentioned in the Letters include Lib'ayu of the shrine city of Shechem and Abdi-Heba who ruled in the shrine city of Jerusalem in the mid-1330s BC. Abdi-Heba hired some Apiru/Habiru (Hebrew) to serve as mercenaries. Among the Habiru were clans known for their skill in spying and combat. Others were known for their skill in metal work some of which was done at the shrine cities since these had sufficient water, and metal articles such as jewelry, mirrors, tools, weapons and sacred vessels were crafted for the rulers.

Hazor was destroyed by a large fire between 1400 and 1100 BC. Fourteen massive jars of scorched 3,400 year-old wheat have been found in a Late Bronze Age palace at Hazor. Scholars do not agree on the cause of the fire. Israeli Archaeologist Amnon Tor-Ben believes that the Israelites conquered the city of Hazor and burned it as described in Joshua 11:11- "None of the cities that stood on mounds did Israel burn, except Hazor only; that Joshua burned." However, Joshua 6:24-28 credits the Israelites with burning Jericho and Ai, but does not mention Hazor.

It is also possible that Hazor was burned by the Egyptians with the help of Nilotic Hebrew warriors. Seti I claimed to have destroyed Hazor in a military campaign around 1300 BC. It is possible that Hebrew warriors were among Seti's destroyers of Hazor and memory of the event came into the Hebrew Bible from them.

It seems doubtful that the Hebrew would have burned Hazor on their own initiative since the king of Hazor was friendly to the Hebrew (Habiru/Hapiru) as evidenced by Amarna document EA 148 (Cairo Museum Cat. Number 4765, ca. 1400-1100 BC).

Perhaps the fire that destroyed parts of Hazor broke out due to granary explosions. This was one of the risks of storing large amounts of grain offered as tribute. 

Southern Shrine Cities

The most important of the southern shrines was Beersheba, inhabited from at least 4000 BC. The shrine is named after the well of Sheba, a huge cistern carved out of the rock beneath the town. There were numerous wells in the area due to the abundance of underground water. Beersheba had separate areas for the ruler and his soldiers, a commercial center, and housing for the average citizens. Sophisticated metal work was being done in the area and the patron of the metal workers was Hathor-Meri, the virgin mother of Horus.

Replica of the horned altar found at Beersheba.

Beersheba is mentioned as a holy place in the patriarchal narratives. Archaeologists have found Edomite and Midianite pottery here which indicates that these related peoples lived here together at different times throughout the Iron Age. A four-horned brazen altar identical in structure to the altar used later by the Israelites was uncovered in 1973.This discovery was made by a team under the direction of Yohanan Aharoni and Ze'ev Herzog of Tel Aviv University.

The horned altar and the mercy seat of the Ark are apophatic representations of the presence of the Creator whose emblem was the Sun. The ancient Horites never worshiped the sun. The Creator and the sun were viewed as distinct since the Lord created a tent for the sun. The negative orb-shaped space is evidence that Israel repudiated earthly representations of the Creator. This likely emerged as the devotees of Horus (Horite Hebrew) sought to separate themselves from the syncretistic developments of the Egyptian and Babylonian empires.

Beersheba was a sacred water shrine in the time of Abraham (2000 BC). Abraham's second wife Keturah lived at Beersheba. Their firstborn son was Joktan (Yaqtan). Beersheba is where Abraham spent the last years of his life. 

Beersheba had strategic importance because it was the largest settlement in the Negev. It guarded the trade routes between Mesopotamia and Egypt and between the Nile Delta and Southern Arabia. Its fortifications in the late Iron Age were impressive and included a moat that encircled the city and a steeply-sloped earthen rampart. Beyond the rampart the city was surrounded by thick stone walls. The gate was a chambered type, and inside the gate archaeologists found an incense altar at the high place, just as described in II Kings 23:8.

Archaeological discoveries indicate that Beersheba was from the earliest time associated with a ruler class. This explains the discovery of crowns, specters, and objects of ivory and copper of exquisite craftsmanship. It also may explain why Sheba defied David's rule, hoping to make himself king (2 Samuel 20:1–22).

Josephus calls the descendants of Abraham and Keturah "Horites" and, quoting an ancient historian, speaks of them as "conquerors of Egypt and founders of the Assyrian Empire." However, the Horite and Sethite Hebrew maintained temples and shrines along the Nile River long before Egypt and Assyria appeared as political entities. The oldest Horite Hebrew shrine city is Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) on the Nile. Nekhen is marked by a star on the map.

Related reading: Sphinx Discovered at Hazor; The Men Who Spied on Canaan; Jacob Leaves Beersheba; The Saharan Antecedents of  Pharaonic Egypt; The Hebrew were a Caste; Horite and Sethite Mounds; The Earliest Known Site of Horite Hebrew Worship