Ancient Egyptian Lexicon

Alice C. Linsley


The Egyptian writing system was a combination of phonetic and ideographic signs. Over different periods signs were drawn from different cultural experiences: Nubia, Kushite, etc.

Egyptian has both biconsonantal and triconsonantal signs.

Egyptian words are built of roots and affixes (prefixes, infixes and suffixes). Where a noun is immediately followed by another noun, the first noun serves as a descriptor (as in the English: police man, baby food). A particularly interesting suffix is -itti, indicating to a ruler or person of high social rank such as a royal official. This appears as a title in Leviticus 16 in reference to the man who is to escort the scapegoat (the azaz-el) to the wilderness.

Many adjective-noun phrases are bound constructions in which the two words cannot be separated. This is often employed in the description of individuals (as in English: smooth talker). In Middle Egyptian such phrases specify either a good or bad character trait or quality.

Ancient Egyptian has nisba-adjectives, some of which are derived from propositions. The term "nisba" (meaning “relative”) is taken from Arabic grammar (’ismu-nisbati). In Egyptian nisba-adjectives are identified by the −j ending. Colors often have the nisba marker: blue - khesbedj; green - wadj

In Middle Egyptian the phrase jw wn speaks of existence - there is/there are (like the word "hay" in Spanish). The phrase nn wn speaks of nonexistence - there is not/are not ("no hay..." in Spanish).

As in other Semitic languages, the verb is a basic component of Egyptian verbal phrases. In verbal sentences, the normal word order is: Verb + Subject + object and/or adverb or adverbial phrase.

Many words represent a complex of related meanings (polysemy). The word ˁnḫ is an example. It means live, and it represents the ankh with its solar handle. The Sun was the emblem of the Creator Ra ("Ani" in Akkadian) and his son Horus ("Enki" in Akkadian). Horus is the Greek for the Egyptian HR, meaning Most-High One. Among the Nilotes, God Father and God Son are associated with the Sun. 

Ancient Egyptians designated male and female gender by pictograms of kneeling men and women. Hieroglyphs which describe something feminine have a final -t (hmt, nbt, nfrt, mwt, sit, etc.) Neb (NB) means "Lord" and Nebt (NBT) means "Lady."

Because there are no vowels, words and names can easily be confused. Consider these names: Satwesrut (daughter of a mortuary priest named Heqanakht) and Senwosret, a pharaoh who was a devotee of Wosret, a Theban goddess.

What follows is list of Egyptian words, roots, and affixes arranged alphabetically (English alphabet). Not being an expert, there are likely errors, but I hope that it will be helpful to students of Biblical Anthropology. I also suggest possible connections to African and Semitic words.


Lexicon

A

ab - heart, to purify

af - flesh
aha - to fight

akhet - the horizon
akh/ - spirit (similar to Hebrew ruach/breath)

aakh- to be useful

akhu - fire (Igbo- oku) Also may refer to the divine spark that gives life.

ankh - life

anochi - I alone, first person singular (cf. Akkadian anaku - royal first person)

An-tiu Sett - the dwellers in the Eastern Desert as far north as Canaan.
An-ti Set - a man of the Nubian Desert
anx - beetle

Ar - ancient name for the Nile River (likely related to the Sumerian ar - venerable, praiseworthy, and possibly related to the Arabic arsh, meaning throne.)

ari nefer - to perform a sacred task

ari khet - to sacrifice

ash - invocation

as - affiliation with, belonging to (As-Neith means "one belonging to Neith.)

ateb - land, region, royal holding

B
ba - ram; body/flesh (Horus as Khnum is the only deity shown with a ram's head and human body.)
baar - sea

baty - the north (cf: suten-baty – south and north)
bbbb (reduplication) - to pierce, to kill

beka - to shine, to illumine

beka-t - morning light

benben-t - pyramid, obelisk, pillar or mound; something rising from the ground.

bnbn - swelling

benra-t - a date palm/tamar

bes - leopard (best - female leopard)

bd - month
bdt - gourd, bed of gourds
bity - king/ king's presence in palace
brk - to bless/blessing (cf. Hebrew barak means to bless/kneel and berakah means blessing.)
bt - bee

bu - place, condition
bw - ivory

D
dd - say, speak, stability

deshr - red
dhwty - scribe  (cf. Tahuti - a writer of signs; another name for Thoth)
didi - red fruit
djeser - holy, sacred

djew - mountain

djrt - hand (cf. djrt-ntr – hand of God)
dmi - town

dpt - ship

dpwt - ships
dr - to sift

dwa - tomorrow

E
eb - I want

edjo - cobra

F
feh - to go away (Yoruba feh - to blow away)

H
h - to stand up or arise

ha - spirit, after, behind
hakhem or hakim - keeper of received wisdom

hat - moment in time (Bantu hatua – point time/space, pace walk/step, period of time)
hb - festival

hdmw - footstool
hedj - radiant, white, silver, bright

hekau - magician/ lector priests

henâ - together with
hen - eternal
ḥeq - chief, ruler
hesy - favored

het - front (cf. akhet – horizon)

her / hr - over, above, upon

hh- hot breath
hika - evil (Yoruba ika - evil) 
hir - praise

Hr - the One on high, Most High One (Horus with Father Râ)

horiwo - head

hpr - to come into being, to become

hprr - that which comes into being

hpry - deity with a scarab beetle for a head
hpw - law

hm - servant
hm ntr - prophets
hmt - woman

hmz - sit, recline
hnn - phallus, pronounced khenen (the kh is a guttural as in Hanukkah)

ḫnrt - prison
htm - to seal

htr - horse

htrwy - horses, pair of horses
hu - the spoken word, the authoritative word that resides with the high king.
hwtw - enclosures
hy - gladness, happiness

I

i - to be
iaru - reeds

iban - ebony

ibw - shelter, refuge

imy-wnwt - hour/sky watcher

imn - create
imw - woe
imy - who is in, which is in
imyw - interior, inside of
imytw - in the middle, in the midst of
ink - first person singular pronoun
inw - tribute
i’nw - it is
i’pw - it is
iri - enact
irtiu - blue (also khesbedj - blue)

ir.t - eye (cf. Yoruba iri – to see)
ir.t rʿ - the eye of Ra (referring to the sun, the symbol of the High God)
irty - evil-doer

iru - appearance 

isw - weeds/reeds

iterw - the river, referring to the Nile River

iti - grain

ity - sovereign

iw - to come; is/are
iwnw (Iunu) - place of pillars (such as at Heliopolis, Biblical On)
iwn - pillar

iwnn - sanctuary

iwnt - bow

iwnyt - pillared hall

J

jb (jib) - heart

jw wn - there is, there are

K
ka - spirit, life force, or deified ruler (As a Hittite suffix, ka refers to a place: Ida-ka, "forest place")
kar - shrine or temple (kar-nak - place of rituals)

kenit (khenet) - yellow
kham - cheating

khat - body
khau - sieve

khem (kem) – black

khenti - red earth, red ocher

khenty - before, in front of

khenen (hnn) – penis/phallus
khepesh - thigh
kheper - scarab beetle

khesbedj (also irtiu) – blue
khry - master, head man, leader

km - to end, to complete/fulfill, to carry out order (cf. Bantu koma – strength, force, power, lion)
kwa - east

ky - baboon, specifically the Papio hamadryas.

M
mau - to see

mds - slicher, cutter

me - unto, against
medu ntr - divine script, divine speech, hierogylphics
men - to establish

mer - love
mery/myr - beloved
mes/mose - born

m - in, with, by, at the time of

M as prefix - from 
mhn - coiled serpent (a solar image)
mhwt - clans
mm - among

mnmnt - herd

mnh - be excellent, effective

‘m - mother (cf. Northern Arabian ‘m - mother)
mo - water
mr - chisel (cf. Hebrew mr - spoken)

mr’t - woman

mdju ntjr - words of God (cf. djrt ntr - hand of God)
mj - like, according to, as well as

mw or nwy - water (mu)

N

n - and
nak - ritual (such as circumcision and the removal of front teeth)
nakht - strong
nbt - lady

nbw - gold
ng - cattle
nedjem - sweet
nefer/nofir - good, pleasant, well, beautiful
netjer - God. deity, divine
 ˁnḫ - live, ankh
nhh - eternity, to become as a star
nhn - shrine, Nekhen (City of Horus on the Nile)

nhp - awake from sleep or repose of death.

niwty - belonging to a town

nmhf - green stone
Nnu - Noah

nt - watery region, basin, springs, waters

ntjw - ancestors, those who were

ntr /ntjr – deified king (tr - blood, pure)
ntr anx - deified

ns - tongue

nst - throne/seat

nsw- king

nsw bit - king of Upper and Lower Nile (Egypt)
nu - fragile
nub - gold
nut - sky, waters above

nxb - sign for Upper Egypt/sedge

nxn - Onn (Iunu - place of pillars); the Sun City of biblical On (Gen. 41:45)
nwh - to intoxicate or be drunk
nwy - water

O
osa - tide

P
pd - duck, bird
phty - strength, power

pr - house or temple
pr-nfr - good house or house of rejuvenation

pr pn - this house

prt - grain or seed

prw - houses (cf. O-piru - Sun House, shrine or temple)
psd- nine
pshai - prophet
pt - sky

Q

qes - bone

qma - bulrushes

 ‘qw - rations, salaries

R
R - Eye of Horus

Râ pw - It is Râ (Ra it is); or He is Râ
rahbo - vast

re - father of
rmt - person, human
rmy.t - tear

rn - calf

rnp - colt

ro - to talk (Yoruba ro – to think and Yoruba oro – word)
rsw - to make happy

rwd/rudj - ball, sphere, the Earth

S

sa - man/protection/son
sah - ennobled, mummified body
saakh - to illuminate, make bright
sba - star (may also mean door)
sbg - planet Mercury

sdemet - eye paint
sekhem - power

sen - granary/brother
ser - prince or chief
setep - chosen

shamsh - Sun (Arabic - shams; Hebrew - shemesh)
shesep (also hedj) - white
sheut (šwt) - shadow (origins of Hebrew "sheol")
s-shr, ssr, scr - linen
shni - to dwell
shu - wind
shwr - insult, reproach, disgrace
si - son (The name Sihathor means "Son of Hathor.")
si-Re - Son of Re (also sometimes sa-Re)

sit - female, third person/she (daughter?)
srh/serekh - that which brings understanding
sr.t - proclamation/pronouncement
ssr - corn/flax
ssn - lotus plant
sm - herb, plant
smr - companion
snb/seneb - to be healthy (Bantu simba – health)

sntr - incense/to cense (This word contains the NTR word for God.)
snw - high social rank
sut - wheat, grain (grain beverage?)

sutn - the south (cf. suten-baty – south and north)
su - reed

swḥt - egg
swnw - doctor or physician
swnw nsw - physician of the king (wr swnw - chief of physicians)

T

ta - land of

tàkïo ra - to be drunk or to become drunk
taw - bread
tbb - crush, smash, shatter
tbw - sole of foot

tches - self

tef - father

tep - head

tesem - hunting dog
tm - universe/totality/complete (Atum)
tm - verb of negation
tn - rise up, resurrection

tr - pure, blood (Related: Hebrew thr - to be pure; Hausa/Hahm toro - clean; the Amarigna (Ethiopia) anatara - pure; Tamil tiru - holy, and proto-Dravidian tor - blood. In some Kushitic languages mtoro means rain and toro refers to God.)

trw - seasons

tst - horns, animal with horns
twn - to gore

twr - to purify
twt - done, to be complete

U
-un(u) - we (cf. Hebrew plural masculine we - anu)

uat neter - the sacred way/road; the processional path of the deity

uat-Heru - the path of HR/Horus

userit - woman of distinction, wealth, high status, prestige
urshu - soldiers on watch (There may be a connection to Edomite Shasu.)

W
wabau - healer

wab - pure
wab sxmt (wab sekhmet) - physician priest
w'b.t - purification/place of purification

wadj - green
wd.t - decree
wakhz - wound

warih - moon
was - dominion

wbn - rising sun (cf. bnbn – stone pillars, mounds, swelling)
wen - to exist, to be
wer - great
wgs - cut open, gut (as fish); pluck feathers

wi - mummy
wmt - lintel
wnm - food
wrh - to anoint

wrq - green
wryt - great ones

wti - embalmer

X

xmt - three, thrice

xrw - enemy

xwi - protect

xw - protection

Y

yhy - Oho!

ym - sea (yam - sea in Hebrew)

Z

zaw - guardian
zhn - reed boats
zw - be harmful, dangerous
znbw - battlements
znt - hostile

References:

E.A. Wallis Budge, An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary
Rainer Hannig, Grosses Handworterbuch Agyptisch-Deutsch
Raymond O. Faulkner, Middle Egyptian
Raymond O Faulkner, The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts
Daniel L. Selden, Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom

Related reading: The Pronunciation of Ancient Egyptian; An Outline of Comparative Egypto-Semitic Morphology; Gardiner's Transliteration; Budge's Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary

Ezekiel's New Temple

Alice C. Linsley

The prophet Ezekiel received a vision concerning the New Temple (“The Third Temple”). In this vision the temple is not very similar to Solomon's temple and the question arises as to whether this new temple is completely new or based on an earlier pattern or celestial archetype.  If the latter is the case, Ezekiel may be speaking about the restoration of a pattern known to his distant ancestors.  In this essay we will explore how that is so.

Ezekiel’s Ancestors

Ezekiel is believed to have lived between 625 and at least 572 B.C.  He lived in the southern kingdom of Judah until he was taken to Babylon around the year 599 B.C. He was thirty years old when he received his call, the age when men were first to enter priestly service. In the fashion of the other biblical prophets, he began his prophetic ministry with a theophany (celestial chariot vision) in the year 593. He was a contemporary of the prophets Jeremiah and Daniel. Jeremiah went into exile in Egypt, but Ezekiel, like Daniel before him, was taken to Babylon.

Ezekiel was the son of Buz. His name is Buzi in Akkadian, the Afro-Asiatic language instituted by the Kushite kingdom builder Nimrod (Sargon the Great?). Nimrod controlled the Tigris-Euphrates River Valley where, according to Genesis 10:8-12, he built many of the cities that are mentioned in Ezekiel, including Babylon and Erech.

Buz was one of Abraham’s nephews. The others were Lot, Huz, Buz, Kamuel, Chesed, Hazo, Pildash, Jidlaph and Bethuel (Gen. 22:20-22).  Abraham lived between B.C. 2039-1964. So it is evident that Ezekiel’s father was a later Buz than Abraham’s nephew, but clearly a descendant of the Horite priestly lines that intermarried exclusively. One of Job's inquisitors, Elihu, was a descendant of Abraham’s older brother Nahor through his son Buz. 

Buz and Huz formed a three-clan confederation with Uz. Uz was also the name of Job’s homeland. Uz is associated with Dedan. Isaiah 21:13 alludes to the caravans of Dedanites, and Ezekiel 27:20 speaks of Dedan as supplying Tyre with precious things. The rulers of these people controlled the routes of commerce, both caravan routes and river routes.

Uz the Elder’s grandson (by his daughter) was Uz the son of Dishan (I Chron. 1:42). Dishan the Horite was the brother-in-law of Esau the Younger (Jacob’s brother). Uz the Younger was Seir's grandson. Here is a diagram of the Horite Hebrew clan in question (based on Gen. 36):

The Horite Hebrew were the earliest caste of priests from whom the Aaronic, Levitical and Zadokite priesthoods emerged later in Israel’s history. Tzadok צדוק, meaning "righteous" was a descendant of Aaron.  He was the first High Priest to serve in the New Temple built by Solomon. Ezekiel extols the sons of Zadok as staunch opponents of paganism and indicates their right to unique duties and privileges in the future Third Temple (Ezekiel 42:13, 43:19). This is one of numerous references to the number three in the book.  Ezekiel is called “son of man” (literally ben’adam, meaning son of Adam/mortal) 93 times in Ezekiel. Ezekiel 4:5 speaks of how the prophet is to endure punishment for 390 days.

There are also numerous references to the number 25 and multiples of 25. Chapter 40 begins with “In the twenty-fifth year of our exile...”, then almost all of the dimensions listed in these chapters are multiples of 25. In Ezekiel 48:8, we read that the sanctuary of the New Temple will be within Judah and measure 25,000 reeds. To the Levites are granted a space of 25,000 reeds in length (Ez. 48:13).

One wonders if Ezekiel believed the reestablishment of Israel would be a 50th year of jubilee – thus Israel was at the time of captivity in Babylon halfway to the day when the temple would be established according to the pattern described in an earlier chapter.  

The occurrences of the number 25 include:

Ezekiel was age 25 when he went into exile (30 when he received his prophet call).

In Ezekiel 40, the angelic measurements of the New Temple are made using a reed, as was done in ancient Egypt.  It appears to replicate the measurements of the older temples along the Nile.  That suggests another meaning for the number 25.

Heliopolis (called “On” in Genesis) was called “Iunu” which means place of pillars because the temple was constructed with many pillars. The average number of pillars in Hindu temples is 25 and those temples were based on the pattern of Abraham’s ancestors were Kushites.

Another ancient temple of the Sun (an O-piru) is in Lebanon. It was called "Heliopolis" and the Egyptian cry to the Creator whose emblem was the Sun began “Helie!” Here we see the polysemic quality of the ancient Afro-Asiatic biradicals. HL has many different yet related meanings and is the root for honorific titles such as Heli, the father of Joseph, the Virgin Mary's husband (Luke 3:23).

The Heliopolis platform in Egypt was raised 25 ft. above the ground.  This temple was a center of activity in the Bronze Age and many great monuments were aligned to the obelisk there. It was in use during the New Stone Age because Neolithic artifacts have been found there which date to about 9000 B.C. (See the site Baalbek in Lebanon). 

Ezekiel clearly knew about the ancient temple of Heliopolis because he mentions it in Chapter 30:17: “The young men of On and of Pi-beseth will fall by the sword, and the women will go into captivity.” Pi-be’seth was originally a Horite temple, but was known by Herodotus as Bubastis because it was later dedicated to the cat goddess Bast or Bastet.

There were no vowels in the Proto-Semitic languages so the word would be P-b-St, which means the Palace/temple of Seth.  It is a form of Piru-bu-Set, meaning Sun House (temple/palace) of Seth.  Seth was Cain’s bother.  His royal line is listed in Genesis 5.

Ezekiel was a descendant of the first rulers named in the Bible, Cain and Seth (whose lines intermarried exclusively). It appears that his vision of a New Temple is based on a pattern that was known to his ancestors. If this is prophecy concerning a future temple, it is clear that the temple will not be like the one built by Herod. It will be a structure that represents a recapitulation to the older Messianic faith rather than that of the Jews of Jerusalem. 

Related reading: The Ruler Seth; The Ha-piru were Devotees of Horus: The High Places, The Sun Cities of the Ancient World

Deborah's Tree of Weeping

Alice C. Linsley

Rebecca's nurse, Deborah, was buried beneath a tree known as either the “tree of weeping” or the “Oak of Weeping" in Bethel. The tree is not specified. It is named Allon-bachuth, which means “tree of weeping”. (Gen. 35:8). The Hebrew word “allon” can refer to a large or important tree species, but here probably refers to either an oak, a terebinth, or sycamore fig. The sycamore fig was associated with Hathor, the virgin mother of Horus, and there is some evidence that graves were placed beneath fig trees.

The name Deborah means “bee.” In Lower Egypt, the bee was the symbol of kings and rulers. Also, Neith, an important deity in Lower Egypt, had a temple known as “the House of the Bee” to which women went for counsel. Neith's symbol during the predynastic period was a shield crossed with two arrows. She was considered "Mistress of the Bow, Ruler of Arrows," so it is not surprising that there should be an association between Neith and Deborah, a later warrior and prophetess in Israel.

Deborah is also associated with Nun, another important figure in Israel's history who also connects to ancient Egyptian mythology. Joshua, the warrior who lead the forces of Israel in conquest of the land of the Canaanites, was the son of Nun. Egyptians believed that the universe came from the primordial waters of Tehom (תְּהוֹם‎), the chaotic deep, which they called "Nun." The connection between Tehom and Nun is interesting, as both suggest the chaotic nature of warfare.

Deborah, who is called a "judge" in Israel, was also a warrior.  She delivered judgment and gave counsel at her tamar (date nut palm) between Ramaah and Bethel (Judges 4:5). There is a natural association between the fig tree and the name Deborah which means bee or wasp.  The wasp lays its eggs inside the ripening figs.

The association of palm trees with rulers and prophets is a common among many Africans and Arabians and is found in the Bible. Fresh palm tree fronds are used ceremonially at the installation of rulers and are used to decorate places of worship. The tamar is the complement of the oak tree. Male prophets sat under oaks (Gen. 12:6) while female prophets sat under date palms (Judges 4:5).


Related reading:  Trees in Genesis; Women Rulers in Ancient Israel